Growing Up in the American Democracy - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 516 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/02/15 Category Politics Essay Level High school Tags: Democracy Essay Did you like this example? Growing up in the United States of America you learn at a young age that we live in a democracy. Kids dream of the day they turn eighteen and have the right to vote. The rights to voting have not always come so easy, there was once a time women and people of color could not vote. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Growing Up in the American Democracy" essay for you Create order Today we take pride in our country because we have freedom of speech and everyone over the age of eighteen now has the right to vote. Our Founding Father’s created a new republican form of government, in which was established by the US Constitution. This form of government is a democracy, the basic features are â€Å"regular open elections, equal-vote majoritarianism, accountable public officials, a workable division of power within government, as well as a free press, freedom of expression, freedom of association, and various forms of protection for political dissent and critique†. Without these conditions our country would not have prevailed the way we have. According to Talisse, in order for a system of government to be called legitimately democratic there must be freedom, fairness, equality, and justice to security, peace, and prosperity. People are still often frustrated with democratic institutions even if they fulfill the functions because some don’t think it is a form of government or a kind of social order. They believe that the process of political order is ongoing social process as well. We see a common dissatisfaction in democracy due to a lack of voter turnout and dishonest politicians. As much as people love to talk about politics we see that there is less than 50% of our population actually participating in elections. We see arguments about feeling like our votes don’t really impact presidential elections due to the Electoral College. Many don’t see that voting in state elections practically determines how your state votes in the electoral college. I believe that if we were taught more about this in grad e school there would be less confusion. Democracy is often only looked at as only having a big government and having a say in who runs our government. Many people do not take into account that our government is built of the US Constitution. The Constitution set up a series of laws that protected the individual’s rights and would allow there to be an opportunity of changing and reevaluating policies. What makes up our democracy is the separation of powers that we have implied. Through the three branches of government we avoid the government to be ruled by â€Å"ignorant masses†. The three branches all have different duties and powers which enforces power to be equal and hard to change policies overnight. Faith in democratic institutions can be restored through politicians providing trust to the citizens. If we saw more politicians out in the community interacting with society, it would not only help us trust more in politicians but would also help voter turnout. The Founding Father’s intended for our democracy to complex and over time we can see that we in fact have a very complicated from of government.

How The Media Shapes The Public Discourse Of Crime

Hannah M. Lahodny March 6th, 2015 || CMJS 2003 Examples and Analysis of How the Media Shapes the Public Discourse of Crime Whether through social media, televised news, or newspapers, most people are exposed to some sort of news media every day. It is the responsibility of the media to inform the public about what is happening in the world around us, and more often than not, that includes reporting crime. If the media is the source of our information, they have the power to influence our perception of that information. The media have the power to not only influence our perception of crime, but also the course it takes through the legal system. External pressures have ultimately shaped the news media’s illustration of violence and crime, and their coverage has and will reshape public opinion and even the criminal justice policy (Beale 2006). There are many examples of how the media changes the influences the public discourse of crime. This change can range from instilling small amounts of bias or jeopardizing high profile court cases. Regardless of the instance, it is something the public needs to be aware of. Perhaps the most well known recent example of how media shapes the public discourse of crime exists regarding the Ferguson trials. On August 9th 2014, an unarmed teenager, Michael Brown, was shot and killed by a police officer, Darren Wilson. The media took many roles in the report of this incident, but most notably the media portrayed it asShow MoreRelatedHistorical Analysis, Discourse, And Frame Analysis835 Words   |  4 Pageshistorical analysis, discourse analysis, and frame analysis techniques, Beckett is able to paint a broad picture of her argument. Her use of polls and surveys demonstrates that the traditional link between public opinion and the tough on crime policies that led to mass incarceration is problematic. Her historical analysis traces the historical development of these policies highlighting the various players and actors operating and struggling for power. Finally, her discourse and frame analysis demonstratesRead MoreThe Media And Its Impact On S ociety1035 Words   |  5 PagesThe Oxford dictionary defines the media as â€Å"the main means of mass communication†, and can consist of anything from television shows to newspaper articles, to twitter feeds, to even word of mouth. In a time where celebrity scandal is integrated into every medium, the sensationalization of celebrities in criminal cases can spread like wild fire. This certainly rings true in the case of Bill Cosby, who has been accused of sexual assault since as early as 2005. In 2014, a surge of women came forwardRead MoreEssay on Media and Cultivation Theory1020 Words   |  5 PagesIn an ever-increasingly mediated society, mass media has become inseparable with the production of everyday life. Media is now a platform for members of society to connect with global events and other people beyond their own personal experience. For many, the media is a major source of information and â€Å"accounts of violence, as presented by the mass media, are the primar y medium by which the average person comes to know crime and justice† (Barak, 1994). The following essay will explore the theoriesRead MoreUse of Language in Immigration1615 Words   |  6 Pagesimmigration rhetoric on the perception held by people about immigration. Different words presented to the public in different ways (positive or negative) imply their own meanings. 2.0 Stereotyping and Negative Attitudes about Immigrants The use of language with reference to this phenomenon has potential for influencing social attitudes towards immigrants and is therefore being discussed on the media. According to Bennion, the use of the term alien is the acceptable way to describe foreigners who haveRead MoreA New Penology? Considerations On Correctional Reform Within New Zealand Essay1728 Words   |  7 Pagesexplain correctional reforms. Instead, there are three significant rationales at play, all which support the existence of each other. The social conditions can be concurrently examined through three lens: the new penology, the old penology, and the public discourse, all of which paint the most appropriate picture of correctional reforms relating to risk management in New Zealand. Essential to Simon and Feeley’s (1992) argument, the new penology is a result of macro-environmental change in the 1970s. StemmingRead MoreMental Illness And Its Effects On The Media Essay1324 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Mental illness is often wrongly portrayed in the United States’ media creating stigmatization and misrepresentation. Mental illness â€Å"refers to a wide range of mental disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior† (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2015). Examples of disorders include anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Any â€Å"negative attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are called stigma† (Wilson et al., 2016, p. 2) and stigma can contributeRead MoreGendered Roles Of The Police Force Essay2083 Words   |  9 Pagesit be from personal experience, hear-say or representations in the media (Horton and Smith, 1988). These exposures to the police force although from inconsistent sources, have one key consistency, they are highly gendered and hyper- masculine (Wells and Alt, 2005). The police force has experienced great advances in terms of gender relations since the 1980s, however gender still influences the trends , forces and tensions that shape what it is to be a woman in law enforcement (Wells and Alt, 2005).Read MoreCNN or CIA In August of 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein ordered the invasion and occupation of1500 Words   |  6 Pagesmotives that prompted the intervention. However, these reasons failed to surface in the media’s debates. The United States media used censorship and deceit to steer the public’s opinion in favor of the Gulf War as a means of serving the interests of their corporate donors and owners. During the Gulf War, the United States government collaborated with several mainstream media outlets to conduct an elaborate campaign of censorship. Network television pundits were predominantly composed of those closelyRead MoreThe Racism Of Sports : A Commentary On Surveillance, Race Talk, And New Racism2629 Words   |  11 Pages Tator, 2010, pp. 319). Sports are social institutions that reinforce racial hierarchies in Canada (Henry Tator, 2010, pp. 243). Although it is commonly denied that there is any racism in Canada, racism in sports has manifested through dominant media narratives, surveillance, and imagery in sports. Venus, Serena, and the Inconspicuous Consumption of Blackness: A commentary on Surveillance, Race Talk, and New Racism White dominated spaces are gradually becoming more racially diverse in the U.SRead MoreEssay studying media1100 Words   |  5 Pagesexperience, comes to us through the media. Media studies gives us the tools to respond thoughtfully and critically to media content, and recognise media productions as deliberate constructions rather than windows on reality. The ‘mediated’ society in which we live, is heavily shaped by the transfer of information. Many of our values, our ideas, and our knowledge of the world come from beyond our individual daily or immediate experience, usually via the media. They play a vital role in democracy

Sri lanka agriculture development and rural economy Free Essays

Dependency theory was really popular during 1960s and 1970s as a direct challenge to the free market theory which was popular during the post-war season. The theory was formulated in 1950s and it is drawn on Marxian analysis of planetary economic system. The theory explains the relationship between economically developed states ( Advanced states ) and developing states of the universe. We will write a custom essay sample on Sri lanka agriculture development and rural economy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Harmonizing to the theory, the developed states consider as the nucleus of the system and the developing states as the fringe of the system. When the system is working, resources flow from fringe developing states to the developed nucleus states. It is a cardinal contention of dependence theory that hapless provinces are impoverished and rich 1s enriched by the manner hapless provinces are integrated into the â€Å" universe system. † The dependence theory is applicable to most of the developing states in the universe except few illustrations like India and Taiwan. Harmonizing to my cognition the theory is applicable to all most all states in the south Asia including Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka was besides colonized by British Empire during 1815 – 1948 where it made a terrible harm to the Local civilization, Social life, independence every bit good as Economy. Even though the state has been ruled by local leaders from 1948, United Kingdom and other developed states have been created negative consequence on the development of the state. However, presently Sri Lanka is in a right tract toward the development, where the service sector and the fabrication sector shows a fast growing while the Agriculture sector shows a relatively slow growing. Tourism and other service subsectors have been well contributed to the economic system of the state. However the economic system of the state was opened to the universe market in 1977 and the state has been experienced both positive and negative impacts on the development positions. On the one manus most of the local baby industries were collapsed during the period as a negative consequence of the unfastened economic system. On the other manus most of the international investors and multinational carbon monoxide operations came to the state with their new engineerings which was utile to look in the universe market as a bring forthing state. Most of the developing states specially in south Asiatic states, including Sri Lanka have been depend on the IMF, World Bank, ADB and other multinational carbon monoxide operations to carry through their budget shortage through loans or grants under legion regulations and ordinances which severely consequence on the internal development. As consequence of that influence, most of those regional leaders every bit good as people of those states have a dependence outlook which was identified as the major constrain for the development. However, Sri Lanka was able to come in the in-between income state degree and presently the dependence outlook remains merely in some portion of rural countries of the state. In that scenario, Sri Lanka is no longer stray state in the universe, but still in the disadvantaged and developing side which needs particular protection and nutriment for local baby industries to protect them from the international competition. Consequently, Sri Lanka has to utilize different theoretical account which can pull strings the international competition within the state while absorbing the maximal public-service corporation form the international market. Harmonizing to my cognition and experience no any pure theory will helpful to utilize as it is for development in any state. Therefore, the state must hold their ain manner for development which has to critically see their ain resources and restrictions. â€Å" Poor but efficient Agriculture usage of developing state Traditional system † proposed by T.W. Schultz. This is one of a theory which tries to explicate the efficient usage of limited resources by hapless or developing husbandmans in developing states. The theory was foremost found in the T.W. Schultz ‘s book of Transforming Traditional Agriculture which was published in 1960s and the theory was really popular during that period. During 1950s and 1960s, Most of the economic experts and Policy shapers believed that the productiveness of Agriculture sector in developing states as really low. Therefore they argued that the fringy productiveness of the labor in those states as nothing. Hence those agribusiness labors could be transferred from the agribusiness sector to the industrialisation sector without holding any harm to the agribusiness sector. Therefore, it was besides widely accepted that husbandmans in developing states were guided by tradition or civilization. On the other manus they are non responded to the economic inducements. But Schultz argued that the husbandmans in developing states have really limited resources but most of the husbandmans use that limited resources expeditiously. However those husbandmans are hapless because of the other assorted grounds like cultural features such as deficiency of a work moral principle, deficiency of an apprehension of the thought of salvaging, or general ignorance of how to do best usage of their resources. Schultz argued that low income degrees in developing states agribusiness are a consequence of the low productiveness of the available factors of production, but non inefficiencies in their resource allotment. Subsequently, most of the researches have been conducted and accordingly the theory was through empirical observation proved utilizing the research conducted in several developing states. In Sri Lanka, there are plentifulness of little graduated table husbandmans who live under the poorness line but they use their limited resources expeditiously for their harvest cultivation. Water and fertiliser is the most scare resources in the dry zone of Sri Lankan husbandmans. They use particular agriculture pattern which is called as â€Å" Chena cultivation † . Even though that agriculture pattern is non recommended by most of the agriculturalist in the state, Chena cultivation is one of the largely adoptable patterns to utilize H2O and fertiliser. In this method husbandmans ever use new piece of land and they move to new a land in the following season. Farmers use all the vegetive parts as green manure and fire all the difficult parts of workss and mix with dirt as fertilisers. That organic manure covers all the alimentary demand of the new harvests. Farmers cultivate drought immune harvest varsities and cultivate as a mix harvest form. The system lowers the hazard of plague and disease incidence and good as maximise the use of wet. Farmers normally use household labors and utilize some excess labor merely in peak seasons. However, most of those husbandmans are hapless and the life base is besides low. There are many grounds behind the narrative and some of them are low salvaging rate, hapless cost direction, selling jobs, low substructure etc. In that sense, even today, the theory is applicable in most of the developing states and it is utile to understand their agriculture manner, populating manner of the husbandmans. On the other manus, it is utile to propose them to rectify their failings. How to cite Sri lanka agriculture development and rural economy, Essay examples

Consumer Behavior for Real Life Organization- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theConsumer Behavior for Real Life Organization. Answer: SCRIPT for the PPT on Consumer Behavior Chosen journal reference- Chen, C. Y., Lee, L., Yap, A. J. (2017). Control deprivation motivates acquisition of utilitarian products. Journal of Consumer Research, 43(6), 1031-1047. The journal article of Control deprivation motivates acquisition of utilitarian products has been chosen for this paper to conduct. The research has showed that the fundamental desire for control influence product acquisition. There are seven different experiments that are provided in order to conduct this research. Consumers recompense for loss of the perceived control through buying the utilitarian products like household cleaning products or agents. According to the study 1, the basic impacts of the field setting constituting of real purchases. Whereas, the Study 2 and 3 has framed the products as utilitarian dispassionate the influence of control on the product purchase intentions of the customers. Furthermore, according to study 4 the tendency of problem solving mediates the impact of control on the eagerness to practice the consumption of utilitarian products. The reason for this is that these products are associated with the problem solving. Study 5 demonstrated additional pro of and evidences for the account based in capability which shows that the impact is much more pronounced among the common individuals along with high requirement for the cognitive closure that seek to be decisive and hence, it posses higher need to feel effective. Lastly, the study 6 further demonstrates that the control is restored among the individuals with control deprived that acquire utilitarian products, rather than hedonic ones. Recommendations for a real life organization- For a real life organization, Amazon has been chosen. Amazon is at present one of the largest online shopping chains. They drive anywhere from a quarter to a third of choices that are made by the consumers. In Amazon we see, - People who bought this also bought Hence, people could see a well personalized recommendation there. They have a very big impact on the choice of the consumers but still, people do not completely understand what type of products are more possibly to be accepted by the customer when recommended. The below are some recommendations made for it in the field of this research subject that it can apply. The company could sell their services and products in order to access help in the times the customer needs them the most will make their products the utilitarian one. For example, in the month of winter people do make use of sweaters, blankets etc. Hence, it could showcase such products at the very beginning in the month of winter. With the same, the company could exert increased efforts, which in turn will help in making the people that they are valued. For example, it could offer the customers who conduct maximum purchase with various discounts and free gifts. Furthermore, the organization could also implement different marketer induced tactics in order to make it work.

Allen Ginsberg essays

Allen Ginsberg essays Themes and Values of the Beat Generation As Expressed in Allen Ginsberg's Poetry Perhaps one of the most well known authors of the Beat Generation is a man we call Allen Ginsberg, who expresses the themes and values in his poetry. He was, in fact, the first Beat Writer to gain popular notice when he delivered a performance of his now famous poem, Æ’HowlÆ’Â °, in October of 1955. The Beat Generation is typically described as a vision, not an idea and being hard to define. It is characterized as Æ’a cultural revolution in process, made by a post-World War II generation of disaffiliated young people...without spiritual values they could honorÆ’Â ° (Charters XX). Although first condemned and criticized, it became a national phenomenon. Allen Ginsberg expressed the intangible beliefs of this generation in his poems about his childhood, curiosity, war, freedom of thought, and other people. Through Allen GinsbergÆ’Â ­s ideal individualism, he has been able to express the themes and values of the Beat Generation. Because of Allen GinsbergÆ’Â ­s tormented childhood, many of his poems were about his relationship with his mother and his own mental problems. Allen Ginsberg was born in Patterson, New Jersey to Louis and Naomi Ginsberg on June 3, 1926. His mother became insane during GinsbergÆ’Â ­s formative years. She was described as a paranoid schizophrenic, believing she was in danger from assassins and was spied on by everyone, including her own family members. For example, in the poem, Æ’HowlÆ’Â °, Ginsberg writes Æ’ I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked...Æ’Â ° (Charters 62) of his mother, Naomi. This statement employs him as a witness to the destruction. Her struggle for sanity eventually led to the deterioration of her sons sound mind. Kaddish is a poem written by Ginsberg for his mother. It is 2. a relatively confessional poem and indirectly addresses the reader, or...

Tourism in Australia essays

Tourism in Australia essays Given the declining world commodity market and the consequent poor performance of Australias mining and agricultural sectors, the government must acknowledge tourism as the key growth sector. Without sound management strategies and a co-ordinated policy framework, long-term growth in tourism and hospitality cannot be sustained, benefits will not be maximised and the various resources may be depleted as carrying capacities rapidly are reached. A global national perspective is not sufficient, indeed even a national perspective is not sufficient - industry impacts varies from one state and region to another in terms of the type of activities, the intensity of tourist activity and the social/cultural/environmental/economic objectives. Government has no choice but to apply a large variety of measures: information and education; economic measures including financing and environmental/cultural protection; standards and regulatory instruments; planning; and management strategies. While the central agency focus is essential, this must be fully integrated with similar functions at state and local government levels to ensure their work and initiatives complement rather than conflict with each other The Sport and Tourism Division within the Department of Industry, Science and Resources (DISR) set the national policy and direction for tourism, leisure and hospitality in Australia. This division is charged with developing, implementing and administering Federal Government policy and programs relating to the sport and recreation and tourism sectors. This is designed to create an economic and policy environment conducive to the continued growth of these dynamic sectors. The Divisions objective is to increase the innovation and competitiveness of Australias sport and tourism industries (BTR, 2000.Pg.1). Given the size of the tourist industry in Australia, the adequacy of this level of representation (ie. buried within a larg...

Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 43

Assignment - Essay Example ticular good such as generators spikes up after natural disasters such as hurricane, its price will naturally go up because virtually all people would need a generator in the area that lost power due to the hurricane. There will be people who are willing to pay for premium prices just to get the generator and in effect, that will raise the prices. Without government intervention during state of emergency, the dynamics of the market will take over. For example, if the supply of generator is 100 and the demand suddenly increased to 1000, its typical price of let say $100 will shot up to even a thousand because the demand curve increased without increasing the supply curve. When the government intervenes however the market will be distorted because it is forcing the price to remain at its previous level even if the demand curve is increased. But this is not necessarily bad because the demand is also temporary. Eventually, when normalcy returns to a disaster struck area so will the price because the excessive demand will be

Judgment Not Included by Thomas L. Friedman Research Paper

Judgment Not Included by Thomas L. Friedman - Research Paper Example Judgment Not Included by Thomas L. Friedman. Friedman reflects on the rationale of the Boston bomber suspects and the internet’s role in informing the rationale. According to Friedman, investigators reported that the surviving suspect indicated that he and his brother were upset about the U.S.’s invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan and that their opinions and feelings were informed by websites visited on the internet. Friedman is not surprised that the brothers were bothered by the U.S. invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan as it probably angered lots of Muslims. Friedman however, takes issue with how the two suspects chose to express their dissatisfaction. Bombing the Boston Marathon and taking the lives of individuals who have nothing to do with the official acts of the U.S. government and who may have even been Muslims is particularly disturbing when the suspects had a number of more effective and far less dangerous options open to them. To begin with, the suspects were living in the U.S. and could have organized peacef ul assemblies to draw attention to their opposition to the U.S.’s wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. In fact, they are at liberty to raise and draw attention to any issue that they might feel warrants attention. Friedman also wonders why the brothers did not chose to do something productive for Afghanistan. For instance, the brothers could have contributed to community development in Afghanistan with a view to making them less vulnerable to foreign invasion. The brothers could have obtained a higher education and repatriated to one of those Muslim states and made productive contributions to those communities. Certainly the choice that was ultimately made did nothing to help Iraq and Afghanistan nor the brothers themselves. In fact their actions did more harm than good. Friedman argues that the brothers are a small sample size, but do represent a trend among Islamic radicals. They have a tendency to use violence as an expression of their dissatisfaction with Western governmentsâ₠¬â„¢ treatment of Muslims. In the process, they end up hurting and even killing Muslims and therefore doing more harm to Muslims than the Western states that motivated their actions in the first place. With respect to the internet’s influence on the suspects’ thinking, Friedman suggests that the internet is an entirely enigmatic invention. On the one hand it is a source of valuable information and on the other hand it is also a dangerous forum for spreading and perpetuating hatred. In this regard, hatred and important information enjoy an uneasy co-existence and unfortunately, the information highway is navigated by children and the rest of the world without supervision. The opinions and a lot of the information exchanged via the internet are uncensored and should be read and processed with caution. Moreover, our judgments should not be informed by random and uncensored opinions and expressed by strangers on the internet. Instead, our judgments should be informed by ou r actual social learning which begins at home and sadly, this did not happen for the Boston bombing suspects. Part III: Analysis Although Friedman’s suggestion that the Boston bombing suspects alleged acts of terror were counterproductive to their end goals, his suggestion is meaningless to terrorists. As Doran explains, in order to understand why terrorists commit acts of violence we need to ask ourselves â€Å"

Negotiation Journal Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Negotiation Journal - Research Paper Example There are different pointers of what strategy to adopt in an impending negotiation activity. Before choosing a given strategy to use in a negotiation, it is important to consider three main factors. The first factor is extent of valuation of a product, issues or services that cause negotiation to happen. If a given party values an issue, product or service under consideration extremely than relationship, then a win-lose strategy is appropriate. In a win-lose negotiation strategy, relationship is not important and one party of the negotiation will wish to win and does not care of the other party. Win-lose strategy also applies when a party is discussing a fixed position or idea. It is applicable when a price of a product or an idea is fixed. Second factor to consider is the relationship between negotiators. If both parties perceive that they need each other after the negotiation, then win-win negotiation strategy is the most appropriate. In a win-win negotiation strategy, both parties to a negotiation must cooperate, participate or compromise part of their interest to accommodate each other. Both parties to a negotiation agree and discus mutually profitable actions to take. Consequently, both parties benefits after the negotiation. ... Some cultures may prefer win-win strategy while others may prefer win-lose strategy. Win-win negotiation strategy is always possible. It is also one of the most preferred business negotiation strategies available. The purpose of two parties entering into a negotiation is always to benefit from one another. Therefore, it is possible to pursue win-win strategy especially when both parties can cooperate and compromise without incurring any loss. For example, a supplier may agree to reduce a price by a certain percentage and retain some substantial profits. Both parties win because a buyer saves some money and supplier builds a favourable business relationship. At times, win-lose negotiation becomes the only negotiation strategy viable. This is often applicable where a situation or price product is fixed and cannot be changed further because it will result in a loss. Therefore, there will be no room for adjustments and the other party can either agree to the terms of the situation as the y are or forfeit the matter or the product altogether. Win-lose negotiation is always confrontational and each party tries to take advantage of the other party. The forty-eight laws of power can be helpful when crafting a distributive negotiation strategy and tactics. This applies when the other party to a negotiation is confrontational, short sighted, stereotype, aggressive and uncooperative. Forty-eight laws of power can be useful in disarming the other party’s uncompromising stance. However, if the other party is genuinely willing to cooperate, compromise and is interested in long-term relationship, it may not be an appropriate strategy. Therefore, negotiation strategies should be used according to the

Assessment of Plant Tissue Culture

Assessment of Plant Tissue Culture Plant tissue culture, the growth of plant cells outside an intact plant, is a technique essential in many areas of the plant sciences. Cultures of individual or groups of plant cells, and whole organs, contribute to understanding both fundamental and applied science. It relies on maintaining plant cells in aseptic conditions on a suitable nutrient medium. The culture can be sustained as a mass of undifferentiated cells for an extended period of time, or regenerated into whole plants.   Designing a strategy to culture cells from a plant for the first time can still seem like a matter of trial and error, and luck. However, the commercial production of valuable horticulture crops by micropropagation, which relies on tissue culture, shows that it exists in the routine, as well as experimental, world. In the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Liverpool, we have experience over many years with the techniques and applications of plant cell culture. What is Plant Tissue Culture? Plant cells can be grown in isolation from intact plants in tissue culture systems. The cells have the characteristics of callus cells, rather than other plant cell types. These are the cells that appear on cut surfaces when a plant is wounded and which gradually cover and seal the damaged area. Pieces of plant tissue will slowly divide and grow into a colourless mass of cells if they are kept in special conditions. These are: initiated from the most appropriate plant tissue for the particular plant variety presence of a high concentration of auxin and cytokinin growth regulators in the growth media a growth medium containing organic and inorganic compounds to sustain the cells aseptic conditions during culture to exclude competition from microorganisms The plant cells can grow on a solid surface as friable, pale-brown lumps (called callus), or as individual or small clusters of cells in a liquid medium called a suspension culture. These cells can be   maintained indefinitely provided they are sub-cultured regularly into fresh growth medium. Tissue culture cells generally lack the distinctive features of most plant cells. They have a small vacuole, lack chloroplasts and photosynthetic pathways and the structural or chemical features that distinguish so many cell types within the intact plant are absent. They are most similar to the undifferentiated cells found in meristematic regions which become fated to develop into each cell type as the plant grows. Tissue cultured cells can also be induced to re-differentiate into whole plants by alterations to the growth media. Plant tissue cultures can be initiated from almost any part of a plant. The physiological state of the plant does have an influence on its response to attempts to initiate tissue culture. The parent plant must be healthy and free from obvious signs of disease or decay. The source, termed explant, may be dictated by the reason for carrying out the tissue culture. Younger tissue contains a higher proportion of actively dividing cells and is more responsive to a callus initiation programme. The plants themselves must be actively growing, and not about to enter a period of dormancy.   The exact conditions required to initiate and sustain plant cells in culture, or to regenerate intact plants from cultured cells, are different for each plant species. Each variety of a species will often have a particular set of cultural requirements. Despite all the knowledge that has been obtained about plant tissue culture during the twentieth century, these conditions have to be identified for each variety through experimentation. Utilising anther culture to select for cold hardiness Crosses between distantly related species can bring together novel gene combinations. However, the hybrid offspring can be few in number, genetically unstable and require years of further selection and   screening before any advantageous characteristics can be brought near to commercial use. Anther culture (androgenesis), to generate haploid plants from pollen microspores, is one way to shorten this process. It allows novel allele combinations, particularly ones involving recessive characters, to be assessed in intact plants. Useful individuals can then be developed into homozygous and fertile plants through chromosome doubling techniques, and brought into a breeding programme. We have recently been involved in a collaborative project with the Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research (IGER) to use this approach to improve cold-tolerance and fodder quality in grazing grasses. Crosses between  Lolium multiflorum  ( Italian ryegrass) andFestuca arundinacea  (tall fescue) should offer valuable combinations of characteristics. TheLolium  species should provide good growth characteristics, while the  Festuca  provides stress-tolerance. One hybrid individual (Festulolium) resulting from such a cross had already shown drought-tolerance characteristics.   However, the out-breeding nature of these grass species, along with the hexaploid genome of  F. arundinacea  and autotetraploid  L. multiflorumindicated that a lengthy breeding programme might be necessary. The research project therefore aimed to produce androgenic plants from the existing pentaploidFestulolium  plant and assess them for cold tolerance. This exploited the expertise in tissue culture at the University of Liverpool together with experience in breeding for stress-tolerance at IGER. Anthers containing immature pollen (microspores) are the starting material for androgenesis. Flowers have to be selected at the correct developmental stage, which varies from species to species. In addition, some individual genotypes may not be amenable to anther culture, or require specific pretreatments. Careful microscopy and testing of successful pre-treatments of related species are therefore necessary when dealing with a new species. For the Graminae, microspores must be at the mononucleate stage and no pre-treatment is necessary.   The cut flowers were surface sterilised and opened in sterile conditions under a binocular microscope. The anthers were dissected and transferred to a solid nutrient medium. Large numbers could be placed on each petri dish. Callus developed, which was transferred to a different medium to initiate embryos and so generate haploid plants.   Over 200 androgenic plants were produced at Liverpool, each originating from a different microspore. Each therefore represented a genetically different individual. Testing for phosphoglucosisomerase, where a different isozyme was contributed by each of the five chromosome groups within the  Festulolium  plant, indicated that the pollen-derived plants had a wide variety of chromosome combinations from each of the parents of the hybrid. The freezing-tolerance of these plants varied considerably, with three individuals able to survive the extreme cold of -14 degrees Celsius. When the chromosome complement of two of these plants was examined using genomic  in situ  hybridisation (GISH), they carried virtually the whole genome of  F.   pratensis, a parent of  F. arundinacea  noted for its freezing-tolerance. Unfortunately, the fertility of these two plants was not restored by chromosome doubling, so that they could not be used for further breeding. However, they demonstrated the potential of androgenesis for rapid assessment of the genetic potential available from a difficult breeding combination, indicating that this type of wide cross revealed characters of cold and drought tolerance that were worth pursuing CASE STUDY  2 Using somaclonal variation to select for disease resistance plant tissue cultures isolated from even a single cell can show variation after repeated subculture. Distinct lines can be selected with their own particular morphology and physiology. It suggests that the tissue culture contains a population of genotypes whose proportion can be altered by imposing an appropriate selection pressure. This variation can be transmitted to plants regenerated from the tissue cultures, and is called somaclonal variation. It provides an additional source of novel variation for exploitation by plant breeders.   The carrot cultivar Fancy was used in our laboratory to generate a series of 197 regenerant progeny lines. These plants showed considerable morphological variation. They were tested for resistance to the leaf spot pathogen  Alternaria dauci, which can cause total necrosis of mature leaves. They had a greater degree of variation in response than the parental cultivar, including some more resistant lines.   Scanning electron micrographs of surface of carrot leaf 3 days after inoculation with A. dauci. (LHS) germination from multiseptate conidiospore (RHS) penetration of hyphae through epidermal surface rather than through stomata. Scale bar = 10 micrometres. One symptom of the disease is loss of chlorophyll and total soluble polyphenol compounds. These reduce to a low level 6 days after inoculation of excised leaves with  A. dauci  spores when compared with uninoculated leaves. Regenerant progeny with high chlorophyll levels maintained higher chlorophyll levels after challenge with  A. dauci.  After self-pollinating selected high- and low-chlorophyll regenerant plants, this characteristic was inherited by their progeny, suggesting that the capacity to resist this infection is inherited. CASE STUDY  3 Demonstration of tissue culture for teaching Initiating plantlets Regenerated African violets (Saintpaulia ionantha) Introduction The starting point for all tissue cultures is plant tissue, called an explant. It can be initiated from any part of a plant root, stem, petiole, leaf or flower although the success of any one of these varies between species. It is essential that the surface of the explant is sterilised to remove all microbial contamination. Plant cell division is slow compared to the growth of bacteria and fungi, and even minor contaminants will easily over-grow the plant tissue culture. The explant is then incubated on a sterile nutrient medium to initiate the tissue culture. The composition of the growth medium is designed to both sustain the plant cells, encourage cell division, and control development of either an undifferentiated cell mass, or particular plant organs.   The concentration of the growth regulators in the medium, namely auxin and cytokinin, seems to be the critical factor for determining whether a tissue culture is initiated, and how it subsequently develops.  The explant should initially form a callus, from which it is possible to generate multiple embryos and then shoots, forming the basis for plant regeneration and thus the technology of micropropagation. The first stage of tissue culture initiation is vital for information on what combination of media components will give a friable, fast-growing callus, or a green chlorophyllous callus, or embryo, root or shoot formation.   There is at present no way to predict the exact growth medium, and growth protocol, to generate a particular type of callus. These characteristics have to be determined through a carefully designed and observed experiment for each new plant species, and frequently also for each new variety of the species which is taken into tissue culture. The basis of the experiment will be media and protocols that give the desired effect in other plant species, and experience. The demonstration The strategy for designing a medium to initiate tissue culture, showing how growth regulators and other factors modulate development, can be demonstrated using the African Violet, a popular house plant. Leaf sections are the source of explants.  This demonstration is regularly carried out by a student class, and gives reliable results. Sterile supplies are provided from central facilities, and provision of sterile working areas (for example, in laminar flow hoods) is an advantage, although cultures can be initiated in an open laboratory with careful aseptic technique. The standard precautions used during any laboratory work involving chemicals or microbes should be adopted. If you are in any doubt about safety hazards associated with this demonstration, you should consult your local safety adviser.  Ã‚   Step 1 selection of the leaves Leaves are cut from healthy plants, leaving a short length of petiole attached. They should be selected to each yield several explants of leaf squares with approximately 1 cm sides. The youngest and oldest leaves should be avoided.   Wash the dust off the leaves in a beaker of distilled water, holding the leaf stalk with forceps. Step 2 surface sterilisation and preparation of the explants This part of the procedure should be carried out in a sterile working area, or with meticulous aseptic technique.   The leaf, with the petiole still attached, should be immersed in 70% ethanol for 30 seconds, then transferred to a sterile petri dish. Sterile scissors and forceps are then used to cut squares from the leaf as explants, each with approximately 1 cm sides. The explants are transferred into a 10% hypochlorite bleach solution for 5 minutes, gently agitating once or twice during this time. They are then washed free of bleach by immersing in four successive beakers of sterile distilled water, leaving them for 2-3 minutes in each. Three explants are placed on each petri dish of growth medium (see  table  and   below), with the upper epidermis pressed gently against the surface of the agar to make good contact.   The petri dishes are sealed with plastic film to prevent moisture loss, and incubated at 25oC in 16h light/8h dark. Step 3 assessment of tissue culture development The explants are incubated for 4 6 weeks, and inspected at weekly or fortnightly intervals. The growth of obvious bacterial or fungal colonies indicates contamination, and data from such cultures is obviously suspect. The development of dark brown tissue cultures can also be a consequence of contamination.   The media used in the demonstration are designed to show the effects of auxin, cytokinin, sucrose and mineral salts on development. The media were based on the well-known Murashige and Skoog inorganic medium, with additions as shown in this  table.   Typical results These  pictures  show typical results, after about 8 weeks on each medium. To summarise, multiple adventitious buds form on the  control  medium,   leading to many small shoots on the upper surface where the leaf is not in contact with the medium. Absence of  sucrose  inhibits this production. Shoot production is also limited on the low sucrose concentration, but comparable with the control at high sucrose. At zero and low levels of  cytokinin, callus forms where the leaf surface is in contact with the medium, while at high levels, shoot formation is stimulated. At zero and low levels of  auxins  there is a stimulus to shoot formation,   but at high concentrations, large numbers of roots are formed. At low and zero levels of  MS  salts, there is no growth at all. These very obvious variations demonstrate the importance of a carbon and inorganic salt source for plant growth, as well as the effect of the auxin:cytokinin ration on the control of plant development. For  publications  describing this work, follow this link To return  to the top of this page,  follow this link.

Decision Making at the Executive Level Essay -- Business Management Pa

Decision Making at the Executive Level The focus of my term paper is the decision making process used by today's top-level managers. Top-level managers, such as Chief Executive Officers (CEOs), Chief Operations Officers (COOs), and Chief Financial Officers (CFOs), must make critical decisions on a daily basis. Their choices and the resulting outcomes affect the company, the employees, and the stakeholders. Due to the high importance of their decisions, the process they use to reach them merits a close examination. A study published in the winter 1997 volume of Business Strategy Review suggests the major factor in a decisions success is the decision process itself. The study, by Paul Nutt, suggests that poor decision making processes cost North American businesses billions of dollars each year. The study also proposes that most managers don't realize the importance of the process, and it's effect on the success of the decision. Before analyzing the decision process in depth, the measurement of success must be established. Nutt used two broad measures to determine the success of decisions made. First, was the decision implemented fully. Second, was the decision still effective two years after implementation. Based on these measures, only half of the decisions in the study were considered successful. Nutt concluded that much time and money was therefore wasted on these unsuccessful decisions. So during what part of the decision making process did these top-level managers go wrong? In general, many managers often rush to a decision and stick by it, even when it continues to fail. Another cause of unsuccessful decisions is that the managers did not include those most affected by the outcome in the decision mak... ...n decisions, often increasing the chance of success. Unfortunately, most executives don't use this strategy in their decision process. Executives often rush to decisions in order to remove the feeling of uncertainty by not coming to a decision. This impulsive strategy fails because the decision maker does not include enough key people in the decision process itself. If managers would be more confident and take the time to properly assess the decisions they face, the success rate would increase and therefore save much time and money. Bibliography: Works Cited 1. Kroll, Karen M., "Costly omission", Industry Week, July 8, 1998, p 20. 2. Information Access Company, "Avoiding stupid management moves", American Printer, March 1997, v218 n6, p 94. 3. Nutt, Paul, "Better decision-making: a field study", Business Strategy Review, Winter 1997, v8, pp 45-53.